Gender-based violence seriously affects the physical, emotional and mental health of its victims, and can be both chronic and acute in impact. For some women, abuse begins or escalates during pregnancy. This abuse can carry on after the birth, constituting a risk to both mother and child.
Gender-based violence and inequalities in pregnancy
Gender-based violence (GBV) during pregnancy is distressing for victims and contributes to serious and lasting health inequalities for mothers and their children.
Quick links
- do you need immediate help or advice?
- policy context
- what are health inequalities?
- what is gender-based violence?
- what risks are associated with gender-based violence in pregnancy?
- identifying those at risk
Need immediate help or advice?
This webpage is for workers and managers involved in caring for pregnant women.
If you require urgent assistance, please contact the free Domestic Abuse Helpline on 0800 027 1234 (24 hours).
Policy context
Action to eliminate gender-based violence is consistent with:
- Equally Safe: Scotland’s strategy for preventing and eradicating violence against women and girls
- ’CEL(2008)41: Gender-based violence action plan (external link)
- The gender equality duty placed on public authorities by The Equality Act 2010 (external link)
- The Early Years Framework
- Equally Well
- Achieving our Potential (external link)
- Getting It Right for Every Child
What are health inequalities?
For a discussion of health inequalities in pregnancy, please see Inequalities in antenatal care.
What is gender-based violence?
Gender-based violence includes domestic abuse, rape and sexual assault, childhood sexual abuse, commercial sexual exploitation, stalking and harassment, and harmful traditional practices (e.g. female genital mutilation, ‘honour’ crimes and forced marriage). It predominantly affects women, although men too can be victims of abuse.
Domestic abuse is defined as a pattern of assaultive and coercive behaviours, including physical, sexual, financial, emotional or psychological abuse, or a combination of any of these factors.
What risks are associated with gender-based violence in pregnancy?
Violence during pregnancy presents serious risks to both the mother and the unborn child, including:
- miscarriage
- premature birth
- uterine infection
- low birth weight
- injury to the unborn child
- increased risk of maternal mental health problems, including anxiety, panic attacks, depression and postnatal depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and suicide
In two in five domestic abuse cases, there is ongoing physical or sexual abuse of children by the same perpetrator, usually the father or father figure (What health workers need to know about gender-based violence: an overview (external link)).
Identifying those at risk
Any woman can experience abuse. However, factors such as poverty, financial dependence, disability, homelessness or insecure immigration status can increase both women's vulnerability to abuse and affect their ability to prevent or escape victimisation.
The Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health's 2007 report 'Saving Mothers' Lives 2003: 2005 Chapter 13 (external link) noted that, in England and Wales, 40-60% of women experiencing domestic abuse are abused during pregnancy and that 30% of all domestic abuse cases start during pregnancy.
Age is also important. Evidence shows that young women between 15-24 years have a higher risk of abuse (Partner exploitation and violence in teenage intimate relationships and Standing on my own two feet: disadvantaged teenagers, intimate partner violence and coercive control (external links)).
For more information and guidance relating to young mothers, please see Teenage Pregnancy and Inequalities.
It's also important to link with other professionals who may know more about the pregnant woman and her circumstances, e.g. carers, GPs, social workers, the police and voluntary sector agencies.
Indicators of gender-based violence in pregnancy include:
- history of repeated miscarriages, terminations, still births or pre-term labour
- non-attendance at antenatal appointments
- attendance always with a partner who refuses to leave the room, is dominant or aggressive
- multiple injuries at different stages of healing
For a fuller discussion, see p.175 of Saving Mothers' Lives 2003 – 2005 (external link)
